1 Many early and some later authors merely state that there was an Eastern influence without going on to substantiate such claims. These authors do not therefore appear in the bibliography unless they have written material which may have been included in the second section under Physical signs of Phoenician Influence in Greek Religion. See also Cambridge Ancient History (1925) Volume III page 639 for a similar comment.
2 Other cities include Sarepta, Marathus, Berytus and Ecdippa.
3 In the second millennium the Phoenician coastal strip was up to 500 km long, but this was subject to change due to the great powers in the surrounding region using the area as a battlefield.
4 The turning to overseas trade and settlement can also be seen in Ionia, where in the 7th century and 6th century, Lydian and Achaemenid pressure on the land drove the Greek cities to explore and colonise the Black Sea.
5 The Phoenician king of Tyre fled to Cyprus when his city was overrun by the Assyrians; an action that would have greatly strengthened the Phoenician influences present on the Island.
6 A Phoenician presence has been confirmed on Rhodes, Crete and Cyprus.
7 The cities of Motya, Panormo, and Solunto.
8 This period, beginning around 1200 BC, corresponded with the change from Bronze to Iron Age. A new people, the Philistines, descended from the Sea Peoples arrived in the Levant. They brought with them their own gods, some of which were identified and taken on board by the Phoenicians. They also monopolised iron working in this region for the next few centuries.
9 At Lefkandi, bowls with an elaborate palmette or tree of life were found as were pendants representing the Egyptian goddess Isis and a lion-headed goddess. Phoenician items were also among those found in the grave of a rich Athenian lady dating to c 850 BC and three other Kerameikos tombs. See Evelyn Lord Smithson (1968): " The Tomb of a rich Athenian lady c850 BC" Hesperia 37. p 82-83. and J.N. Coldstream (1977): Geometric Greece. pages 55-56.
10 Dunbabin (1948): "The Early History of Corinth" JHS 68. page 66. Dunbabin puts a case for Corinthians rather than Euboeans as the early Greek traders, due to finds of Corthianising ware at this site. Homann-Wedeking (1968): Archaic Greece agrees with this line for Greeks in the Levant. See also Woolley (1953): A Forgotten Kingdom page 172-192 and Boardman (1980): The Greeks Overseas pages 38-54.
11 See Dunbabin above. The Corinthians identified the local hero Melikertes with the Syrian god Melkarth.
12 Shaw (1989): "Phoenicians in Southern Crete". AJA 93, 165-183. And Shaw (1980): "Excavations at Kommos" Hesperia 49 207-250. Shaw sees less evidence for Phoenicians in Crete than does Boardman.
13 Harden (1963): The Phoenicians page 61.
14 The Kommos shrine is discussed more thoroughly under pillar shrines.
15 For the origin of Europa see Kadmos.
16 This deals mainly with similarities in practices and much of it is covered under Pillars and Stones , pillar shrines and pillars.
17 D. Harden (1963): The Phoenicians. page 84. Baalat of Byblos was identified with Isis/Hathor.
18 From Biblical references we know that Ithobaal’s daughter Jezebel married Ahab of Israel, and that Canaanite deities such as Baal were worshipped in Samaria. However, there was a Jewish priestly backlash against these new gods which resulted in the fall of the house of Ahab. In the Graeco-Phoenician relationship, there is nothing comparable to this.
19 Guthrie (1959): "Early Greek Religion in the light of the decipherment of Linear B" Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. 1959 No 6. Page 36.
20 Eshmun is a deity whose worship would appear to have been introduced into Phoenicia in the 7th century when the identification with the Greek gods was made. His traits make him both an Adonis and Asclepius like figure.
21 For changes from triads to pairs of deities see Moscati (1968): The world of the Phoenicians and Aubet (1993): The Phoenicians and the West. p 126. See also Shaw who draws parallels between a Greek triad of deities (Apollo, Artemis and Leto) and Phoenician or Egyptian groupings of gods.
22 Jan Bremmmer (Ed.) (1988): Interpretations of Greek Mythology. Routledge, London. 294 pages.
23 Gurney (1975): The Hittites page 194.
24 Burkert (1988): Interpretations of Greek Mythology "Oriental and Greek mythology" page 19-21.
25 Gurney (1975): The Hittites p 191.
26 For more on cults and shrines see pillars and pillar shrines.
27 Bronze shields in an orientalizing style have been found at the Idaean cave. They have a Tree of Life motif on them.
28 Gurney (1975): The Hittites p 191.
29 Jane Harrison (1962): Prolegomena to the study of Greek religion p235.
30 There was a pairing of serpents seen in both Babylonian and Greek Mythology. This pairing was Tiamat and Qingu in Babylon and Pytho and Typhon in Greece.
31 Typhon in Hesiod Theogony 820-880. Burkert in footnotes quotes Theogony 820-868.
32 Similarities with the myth of the dragon Illuyankas. Gurney (1975): The Hittites pages 181-182 and Burkert (1985): Greek Religion Footnotes. Apollodorus 1. 39-44.
33 W. Burkert (1992): The Orientalising Revolution p 82-83
34 W. Burkert (1992): The Orientalising Revolution p 82-83
35 For links between Perseus and Gilgamesh see masks and Gorgons pages 27 and 28.
36 Rawlinson (1953): Phoenicia page 114.
37 Contenau (1949): La Civisation Phenicienne page 94. And Moscati (1968): The World of the Phoenicians page 35. In Phoenician myth Iolaus-Eshmun resurrected the god Heracles-Melqart as did Greek Asclepius revive Heracles.
38 This practice is paralleled in Greece and is especially strong in the Black Sea. Here the god is Apollo the main deity of Miletus the city central in overseas colonisation from Ionia.
39 For Kadmos read also Cadmus, or Kadmus. For myth relating to Kadmos see Harden (1963): The Phoenicians. p57.
40 E. Craik (1980): The Dorian Aegean. page 54.
41 Coldstream (1969): "The Phoenicians of Ialysos". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 16, 1-7.
42 Burkert (1985): Greek Religion page 172.
43 (1975): Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. II and Cambridge Ancient History Vol. III 2nd edition page 7.
44 W. Burkert (1991): "Homer’s Anthropomorphism: Narrative and Ritual" In New Perspectives in Early Greek Art p 83. The number was set at 12 and is the same as that found in Hittite mythology. An assembly of gods was also characteristic of Ugaritic text
45 W. Burkert (1985): Greek Religion Aphrodite p 152-156
46 Innana is Sumerian, Anath is Canaanite and Ishtar Akkadian.
47 Ashtorith is western Semitic and there are Biblical references to Astarte, Ashtart and Ashtoret.
48 Harden (1963): The Phoenicians p 84. At Byblos Hathor and Baalat are identified as the same goddess.
49 Mallowan (1978): The Nimrud Ivories p 33.
50 Many of these names are listed in Robert E. Bell (1991): Women of Classical Mythology. p53 under Aphrodite.
51 The situation at Kition would appear to be similar.
52 Cotterell (1985): Origins of European Civilization page 129. The two main sites are Amathos and Paphos
53 Odyssey VIII.
54 W. Burkert (1985): Greek Religion p 155.
55 Arthur Cotterell (1985): Origins of European Civilization. page 131.
56 H Payne (1940): Perachora pl 102 no 183a cited in Burkert Greek Religion footnote 30 p 155.
57 (1975): Cambridge Ancient History. Volume II part II page 904.
58 The Judgement of Paris. Helen was Aphrodite’s reward to Trojan Paris for deciding in her favour.
59 Homer Iliad V 364.
60 Aphrodite Areia ‘the warlike’ worshipped at Sparta. Pausanias 3.17.5.
61 E.O. James (1960): The Ancient Gods p 80.
62 E.O. James (1960): The Ancient Gods p 308 and Moscati (1968): The World of the Phoenicians p 33..
63 Burkert (1985): Greek Religion p 167.
64 For the meaning of Adonis see Rawlinson (1953): Phoenicia p 35.
65 For the Cyprian parentage of Adonis see Apollodorus III. XVI 3-4 in J.G Frazer (1921): Apollodorus the library volume II. And for the Phoenician Phoinix see Evelyn White (1914): Hesiod: the Homeric Hymns and Homeria. p171 under catalogues of women and Eoiae no 21. (Hes fr 139).
66 Larousse (1959): Encyclopaedia of Mythology, Harden (1963): The Phoenicians page 83 and Contenau (1949): La Civisation Phenicienne. page 81.
67 The local Hephaestus cult may have originated in Karia.
68 The Philistines, Sea Peoples who overran part of the Levant at the end of the Bronze Age brought ironworking to the region. See Moscati (1968): The World of the Phoenicians p 37.
69 Burkert (1985): Greek Religion p 167. See also Gurney (1975): The Hittites. p 84 on the king and ironworking.
70 Homer Odyssey 8. 266-366.
71 Vassos Karageorghis (1982): Cyprus p 104. Sanctuaries where metal work has been found are Golgoi, Myrtou-Pigadhes and the temple of Aphrodite at Palaepaphos.
72 See masks and Artemis Ortheia.
73 Homer does not attribute lunar connections to Artemis, the moon connection only comes in the fifth century.
74 Homer Iliad 21.470-514.
75 She was known in ancient times as the Karian goddess.
76 Hesiod Theogony 411-452.
77 Burkert (1985): Greek Religion page 97. Lagina.
78 T.J. Dunbabin (1948) "The Early History of Corinth." JHS 68 page 66.
79 Dietrich (1991): "Aegean Sanctuaries: Forms and functions". In: New Perspectives in Early Greek Art page 143.
80 Iliad I. 30-105. 333-410.
81 There were prostitutes of Aphrodite at Corinth and also at her shrines on Cyprus, these include those to Aphrodite Parakyptousa. See Dunbabin (1948): "The early History of Corinth" JHS 68 p 62-67 and Cotterell (1985) Origins of European Civilization p 130.
82 2 Kings 9:30.
83 See votive art. Two can be seen in the British Museum, Catalogue numbers (BM 118155-6)
84 Burkert (1985): Greek Religion page 97 Aphrodite at Askalon and Astarte at Kition.
85 The depiction of the goddess may be a misinterpreted Greek copy of a pointy chinned Syrian original. See section II page 24 on statuary and 26 on figurines.
86 Burkert (1985): Greek Religion page 210.
87 The main goddesses Kuba-Kybele and Artemis-Upis at Ephesus (Burkert (1985) Greek Religion p 97), also the Dea Syria (Evelyn Abbott (1877): The History of Antiquity page 366 Lucian), Hecate, and Aphrodite of Aphaea in Syria and the main god Attis.
88 In Persia it was the tribe of the Magi and in Israel it is the tribe of the Levites.
89 The Egyptian goddess Hathor was carried in a procession to the temple of her companion god once a year.
90 Dunbabin (1948) "Early History of Corinth" JHS 68 p 62-67.
91 Jane Harrison (1962): Prolegomena to Greek Religion p 95-105. Pharmakos.
93 W. Burkert.(1985): Greek Religion p 68.
94 W. Burkert (1985): Greek Religion p 63.
95 Bull sacrifice was important in Crete and also played a part in the cult of Moloch.
96 Rawlinson (1953): Phoenicia p 114
97 Dunbabin (1948): "The Early History of Corinth" JHS 68 p 66.
98 There is little or no archaeological evidence to back up a Phoenician migration to north Greece.
99 John Barron (1981): Greek Sculpture page 7.
100 The Sea Peoples caused major disruptions at the close of the Bronze Age and brought down at least one Great Empire.
101 Laisné (1995), Peter Green (1973), and G. Richter (1974).
102102 Coldstream (1977): "Greek temples Why and Where?" p 70-73. In P. Easterling and Muir Greek Religion and Society.
103 The north Syrian neo-Hittite states were survivals which outlasted the Hittite empire of the late second millennium.
104 Akurgal (1968): The Birth of Greek Art p 143.
105 See decoration and relief.
106 A better description of the temple of Solomon can be found in the Bible 2 Chronicles 3.
107 See page 22-23 for pillars and pillar shrines. The names of the pillars are Jachin and Boaz. Harden (1963) The Phoenicians. p 91.
108 W. Burkert (1985): Greek Religion p 88. Temple and cult image.
109 Bernard C. Dietrich (1991): "Aegean Sanctuaries: Forms and Functions" p 141
110 R.A. Tomlinson (1976): Greek Sanctuaries. p 34
111 Bernard C. Dietrich (1991): "Aegean Sanctuaries: Forms and Functions" p 142.
112 Vassos Karageorghis (1982): Cyprus. page 61. Cypriot III 1225-1050 BC. III C 1150-1050 BC.
113 An Oak at Dodona was still being worshipped in later times.
114 M. R. Popham (1994) "Precolonisation: early Greek contact with the East." p 17.
115 Ruler 969-936 BC.
116 A. J Evans (1901): "Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult" JHS 21. Illustrated in fig 9 p 115.
117 (1975) CAH Vol. II pt II page 857.
118 Examples of these can be found in the (1975) Cambridge Ancient History volume II part II pages 863-864.
119 Massebah means ‘which have been set up’ and Baetyl ‘home of the gods’.
120 Shaw (1980): "Excavations at Kommos" Hesperia 49 page 246.
121 Shaw (1980): "Excavations at Kommos" Hesperia 49 page 247
122 See J.H. Shaw (1991): AJA 93 "Phoenicians in Southern Crete" p 181.
123 Gisela Richter (1974):Greek Art. p 22.
124 D. Harden (1963): The Phoenicians p 93.
125 Akurgal (1968): The Birth of Greek Art p 169.
126 A. Kempinski (1979): Archaelogia Mundi, Syria-Palestine page 100.
127 Boardman (1964): Greek Art page 62. On this page Boardman states that Eastern capitals were only small and used to decorate furniture; not pillars.
128 A. Rathje (1979): "Oriental imports in Etruria" p 170-171. In Ridgway (1979): Italy before the Romans and Akurgal (1968): The Birth of Greek Art p 141.
129 Humbaba see Monsters and later this section under masks and gorgons.
130 Barron (1981): Greek Sculpture p 14.
131 See later this section under Art, votives.
132 Burkert (1985): Greek Religion p 90.
133 H. Stierlin (1984): The Cultural Atlas of Greece Stierlin puts a strong emphasis on Egypt as the origin of the temple and statuary ignoring the diffusion of ideas through Phoenicia and the similarities between votive offerings and early statues. Boardman (1964): Greek Art also follows a strong Egyptian line to temple and statue origins. He ignores any Phoenician involvement stating a Greek presence in Egypt from the mid 7th century. This ignores the fact that the orientalising period was already underway and that a need for temples had already been established by the anthropomorphism of the Greek gods.
134 Barron (1981) Greek sculpture p 14.
135 Barron (1981): Greek Sculpture p 16.
136 M. Mallowan (1978): The Nimrud Ivories 31, p 33, Roaf (1990): The Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia illustration on page 157.
137 Coldstream (1977): Geometric Greece p 358 reference to fig 42 b-d found on page 131.
138 S. Benton (1934-35) " Excavations in Ithaca III" ABSA 35 62-63 no 15 pl 16. Reference In Coldstream (1977): Geometric Greece. Footnote 34 to page 176.
139 Dunbabin (1957): The Greeks and their Eastern neighbours. p 51 and Albright (1963): The Archaeology of Palestine page 107.
140 Roaf (1990): The Cultural Atlas of Mesopotamia illustration p 157.
141 Henri Frankfort (1970): The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient. p 321.
142 Coldstream (1977): Geometric Greece page 289.
143 Coldstream (1977): Geometric Greece page 130.
144 Boardman (1964): Greek Art p 54 -55t.
145 See Harden (1963): The Phoenicians p 199 illustration fig 62 and also Excavations at Artemis Ortheia.
146 J.H. Croon (1955): JHS 75 "The Masks of the underworld". p12-13
147 Burkert (1988): Interpretations of Greek Mythology "Oriental and Greek mythology" page 26. see also Peter Green (1973): Ancient Greece page 66 caption 82. Illustration of an ivory relief 630-620 BC from Samos of Perseus decapitating Medusa who has a grinning face which resembles a mask.